I am getting this message every time I do something like starting or stopping a service.
How do I fix this error ?
JJD41922 gold badges1010 silver badges3737 bronze badges
HackToHellHackToHell2,91944 gold badges2222 silver badges3535 bronze badges
18 Answers
First run
locale
to list what locales currently defined for the current user account:Then generate the missing locale and reconfigure locales to take notice:
Now you will not see any errors anymore!
Otto KekäläinenOtto Kekäläinen5,24411 gold badge99 silver badges33 bronze badges
Nothing suggested above worked in my case (Ubuntu Server 12.04LTS). What finally helped was putting to the file
/etc/environment
:For some reason it was missing. The outputs for locale and other commands appeared like the variables were properly defined. In other words don't take for granted all the basic stuff is declared where it should be declared.
MarcinMarcin3,64911 gold badge88 silver badges33 bronze badges
They should disappear after issuing:
dpkg-reconfigure
reconfigures packages after they have already been installed. Pass it the names of a package or packages to reconfigure. It will ask configuration questions, much like when the package was first installed.217k2828 gold badges418418 silver badges558558 bronze badges
Just add the following to your
devav2.bashrc
file (assuming you're using bash)26.1k1313 gold badges7272 silver badges8080 bronze badges
ratzratz1,15911 gold badge77 silver badges22 bronze badges
This is a common problem if you are connecting remotely, so the solution is to not forward your locale. Edit
warvariuc/etc/ssh/ssh_config
and comment out SendEnv LANG LC_*
line. 1,57533 gold badges1919 silver badges3838 bronze badges
user249697user249697
There is a command for that:
It updates
/etc/default/locale
with provided values.sgtpepsgtpep
What worked for me on 12.10 was this:
This was after
Seth♦dpkg-reconfigure locales
produced no results.36.5k2727 gold badges118118 silver badges172172 bronze badges
George AnswerologyGeorge Answerology
Don't forget exit your SSH session (or your X11) by exiting and logging back in again. All of these suggestions didn't work for me unless I logged back in..
Michael R. HinesMichael R. Hines
For Ubuntu 12.10 none of the above worked except for ratzs' solution. I recommend adding this to your /etc/bash.bashrc file:
Lovemore NalubeLovemore Nalube
I was stuck in a weird state where my local machine is set to
es
and so the remote machine (via vagrant
) had been provisioned in an un-handled state. Therefore, I had to use the manual export=
only to facilitate a successful dpkg-reconfigure
. Then the system is fine.Charney KayeCharney Kaye
I wrote a bash script to fix above issue.The above answers are useful but setting the locale variables by simply exporting the values in shell variable will work only for a session. I permanently solved this issue by exporting the locale variables in .bash_profile file. You can also use
/etc/profile
file instead of .bash_profile
.Don't forget to
source
the .bash_profile
and follow the script in easy setup.Ajeet KhanAjeet Khan
Eric Carvalho43.4k1717 gold badges120120 silver badges149149 bronze badges
KossKoss
Current accepted answer is not sufficient in the troubleshoot strategy because you can have an human error. You setup your system to
en_US
but you have en_GB
enabled in/etc/locale.gen
like I had in the thread here for Raspberry Pi 3b. You should have all your used locales enabled in /etc/locale.gen
. I had
en_GB.UTF-8 UTF-8
only enabled in /etc/locale.gen
. I should have there only enabled en_US.UTF-8 UTF-8
because of other commands run for it. So I commented GB and uncommented US, and everything work nowNow, I do not get those locale mistakes with any commands.
System: Raspbian Jessie
Hardware: Raspberry Pi 3b
Hardware: Raspberry Pi 3b
Community♦
Léo Léopold Hertz 준영Léo Léopold Hertz 준영1,8061313 gold badges5353 silver badges127127 bronze badges
As said here in the Debian Wiki, you can edit
/etc/locale.gen
and add all locales (or uncomment them, I had a list of all locales but all except the one I used as comments) you wish to have support for on your system. Then, executeto update the locales on your system. Now, all of the locales you added/uncommented in
/etc/locale.gen
are available on your system without any warnings.msrd0msrd0
If you use KDE environment, check the
setlocale.sh
file in ~/.kde/env/
:Community♦
MaximKostrikinMaximKostrikin
- You may need to run
sudo dpkg-reconfigure
also for the application you have installed while 'locale' settings have been invalid / not matching.While system locale was incorrectly setup I installedvim
. Later when system locale was fixed I saw a situation thatvim
was showing utf-8 characters incorrectly as strange symbols whilenano
andless
were showing them correctly. Runningappeared to fix the issue after the system settings were fixed. - I also noticed the same thing as already mentioned: You may need to disconnect/reconnect SSH to make changes visible.
ajaaskelajaaskel
Adding the following text to
~/.profile
works for me:I am using Ubuntu 16.04 LTS 64-bit server on Linode.
Jingguo YaoJingguo Yao
This worked for me when I had the same problem (based on the solution provided by dman):
Community♦
pythonhunterpythonhunter
protected by Community♦Jan 1 '15 at 19:12
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| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
elected members → | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
All 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies 315 seats in the Senate | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Opinion polls | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Turnout | 72.93%[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Election results maps for the Chamber of Deputies (left) and for the Senate (right). Colors identify the coalition which received a plurality in each constituency. Blue for the Centre-right coalition, Yellow for the Five Star Movement, Red for the Centre-left coalition, Light Blue for the Aosta Valley regional coalition, and Grey for the South Tyrol regional coalition. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
The 2018 Italian general election was held on 4 March 2018 after the Italian Parliament was dissolved by President Sergio Mattarella on 28 December 2017.[5]
Voters were electing the 630 members of the Chamber of Deputies and the 315 elective members of the Senate of the Republic for the 18th legislature of the Italian Republic since 1948. The election took place concurrently with the Lombard and Lazio regional elections.
The centre-right coalition, led by Matteo Salvini's right-wing League, emerged with a plurality of seats in the Chamber of Deputies and in the Senate, while the anti-establishment Five Star Movement led by Luigi Di Maio became the party with the largest number of votes. The centre-left coalition, led by former Prime Minister Matteo Renzi, came third.[6][7] However, no political group or party won an outright majority, resulting in a hung parliament.[8]
After three months of negotiation, a coalition was finally formed on 1 June between the M5S and the League, whose leaders both became Deputy Prime Ministers in a government led by the M5S-linked independentGiuseppe Conte as Prime Minister.
- 2Campaign
- 7Results for the Chamber of Deputies
- 8Results for the Senate of the Republic
- 11Analysis of proportionality
Background[edit]
At the 2013 general election none of the three main alliances – the centre-right led by Silvio Berlusconi, the centre-left led by Pier Luigi Bersani and the Five Star Movement (M5S) led by Beppe Grillo – won an outright majority in Parliament. After a failed attempt to form a government by Bersani, then-secretary of the Democratic Party (PD), and Giorgio Napolitano's re-election as President, Enrico Letta, Bersani's deputy, received the task of forming a grand coalition government. The Letta Cabinet consisted of the PD, Berlusconi's The People of Freedom (PdL), Civic Choice (SC), the Union of the Centre (UdC) and others.[9]
On 16 November 2013, Berlusconi launched a new party, Forza Italia (FI),[10] named after the defunct Forza Italia party (1994–2009). Additionally, Berlusconi announced that FI would be opposed to Letta's government, causing the split from the PdL/FI of a large group of deputies and senators led by Minister of Interior Angelino Alfano, who launched the alternative New Centre-Right (NCD) party and remained loyal to the government.[11]
Following the election of Matteo Renzi as Secretary of the PD in December 2013, there were persistent tensions culminating in Letta's resignation as Prime Minister in February 2014. Subsequently, Renzi formed a government based on the same coalition (including the NCD), but in a new fashion.[12] The new Prime Minister had a strong mandate from his party and was reinforced by the PD's strong showing in the 2014 European Parliament election[13] and the election of Sergio Mattarella, a fellow Democrat, as President in 2015. While in power, Renzi implemented several reforms, including a new electoral law (which would later be declared partially unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court), a relaxation of labour and employment laws (known as Jobs Act) with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reform of the public administration, the simplification of the civil trial, the recognition of same-sex unions (not marriages) and the abolition of several minor taxes.[14][15]
As a result of the Libyan civil war, a major problem faced by Renzi was the high level of illegal immigration to Italy. During his tenure, there was an increase in the number of immigrants rescued at sea being brought to southern Italian ports, prompting criticism from the M5S, FI and Northern League (LN),[16][17] and causing a loss of popularity for Renzi.[18] However, well into 2016 opinion polls registered the PD's strength, as well as the growth of the M5S, the LN and Brothers of Italy (FdI), FI's decline, SC's virtual disappearance and the replacement of Left Ecology Freedom (SEL) with the Italian Left (SI).
Matteo Renzi announces his resignation after the 2016 constitutional referendum result
In December 2016, a constitutional reform proposed by Renzi's government and duly approved by Parliament was rejected in a constitutional referendum (59% to 41%). Under the reform, the Senate would have been composed of 100 members: 95 regional representatives and five presidential appointees.[19][20][21] Following defeat, Renzi stepped down as Prime Minister and was replaced by his Minister of Foreign Affairs Paolo Gentiloni, another Democrat.[22]
In early 2017, in opposition to Renzi's policies, some left-wing Democrats led by Bersani, Massimo D'Alema and Roberto Speranza launched, along with SI splinters, the Democratic and Progressive Movement (MDP).[23][24] Contextually, the NCD was transformed into Popular Alternative (AP). In April Renzi was re-elected secretary of the PD and thus the party's candidate for Prime Minister,[25] defeating Minister of Justice Andrea Orlando and Governor of Apulia Michele Emiliano.[26][27]
In May 2017, Matteo Salvini was re-elected federal secretary of the LN and launched his own bid.[28][29] Under Salvini, the party had emphasised Euroscepticism, opposition to immigration and other populist policies.[30] In fact, Salvini's aim had been to re-launch the LN as a 'national' or, even, 'Italian nationalist' party, withering any notion of northern separatism. This focus became particularly evident in December when LN presented its new electoral logo, without the word 'Nord'.[31]
In September 2017, Luigi Di Maio was selected as candidate for Prime Minister and 'political head' of the M5S, replacing Grillo.[32][33] However, even in the following months, the populist comedian was accused by critics of continuing to play his role as de facto leader of the party, while an increasingly important, albeit unofficial, role was assumed by Davide Casaleggio, son of Gianroberto, a web strategist who founded the M5S along with Grillo in 2009 and died in 2016.[34][35][36] In January 2018, Grillo separated his own blog from the movement; his blog was used in the previous years as an online newspaper of the M5S and the main propaganda tool.[37] This event was seen by many as the proof that Grillo was slowly leaving politics.[38]
The autumn registered some major developments to the left of the political spectrum: in November Forza Europa, the Italian Radicals and individual liberals launched a joint list named More Europe (+Eu), led by the long-time Radical leader Emma Bonino;[39] in December the MDP, SI and Possible launched a joint list named Free and Equal (LeU) under the leadership of Pietro Grasso, President of the Senate and former anti-mafia prosecutor;[40] the Italian Socialist Party, the Federation of the Greens, Civic Area and Progressive Area formed a list named Italy Europe Together (IEI) in support of the PD;[41] the Communist Refoundation Party, the Italian Communist Party, social centres, minor parties, local committees, associations and groups launched a far-left joint list named Power to the People (PaP), under the leadership of Viola Carofalo.[42]
In late December, the centrist post-NCD Popular Alternative (AP), which had been a key coalition partner for the PD, divided itself among those who wanted to return into the centre-right's fold and those who supported Renzi's coalition. Two groups of AP splinters (one led by Maurizio Lupi and the other by Enrico Costa), formed along with Direction Italy, Civic Choice, Act!, Popular Construction and the Movement for the Autonomies, a joint list within the centre-right, named Us with Italy (NcI).[43] The list was later enlarged to the Union of the Centre, the Union of Democrats for Europe and minor parties.[44] The remaining members of AP, Italy of Values, the Centrists for Europe, Solidary Democracy and minor groups joined forces in the pro-PD Popular Civic List (CP), led by Minister of Health Beatrice Lorenzin.[45]
On 28 December 2017, President Sergio Mattarella dissolved Parliament and a new general election was called for 4 March 2018.[46]
On 21 February 2018, Marco Minniti, the Italian Minister of the Interior, warned 'There is a concrete risk of the mafias conditioning electors' free vote'.[47] Predominately the Sicilian Mafia have been recently active in Italian election meddling, the Camorra and 'Ndrangheta organisations have also taken an interest.[48]
In late February, Berlusconi indicated the President of the European Parliament, Antonio Tajani, as his candidate for the premiership if the centre-right won the general election[49] and if Forza Italia received at least the plurality of the votes inside the coalition, condition that did not occur, resulting in a victory of the party led by Matteo Salvini, the League.
Campaign[edit]
The first phase of the electoral campaign was marked by the statement of the President Mattarella to parties for the presentation of 'realistic and concrete' proposals during the traditional end of the year's message, in which he also expressed the wish for a high participation in the ballot.[50]
Electoral programmes[edit]
Renzi speaks at Lingotto convention
The electoral programme of the PD included, among the main points, the introduction of a minimum hourly wage of €10, a measure that would affect 15% of workers, that is those workers who do not adhere to the national collective agreements; a cut of the contributory wedge for permanent contracts; a relocation allowance and an increase in subsidies for the unemployed; a monthly allowance of €80 for parents for each minor child; fiscal detraction of €240 for parents with children; and the progressive reduction of the rates of IRPEF and IRES, respectively the income tax and the corporate tax.[51][52][53] Regarding immigration, which had been a major problem in Italy for the previous years, the PD advocated a reduction in migrant flows through bilateral agreements with the countries of origin and pretended to a halt to EU funding for countries like Hungary and Poland that have refused to take in any of the 600,000 migrants who have reached Italy through the Mediterranean over the past four years.[54] Among the PD's allies, the CP proposed free nurseries, a tax exemption for corporate welfare and other measures regarding public health, including the contrast to the long waiting list in hospitals, the abolition of the so-called 'supertickets', and an extension of home care for the elderly.[55] +Eu advocated the re-launch of the process of European integration and federation, towards the formation of the United States of Europe.[56] This focus, regarding the European process of integration, was also strongly supported by the PD.[57] More Europe also strongly advocated the social integration of migrants, quietly opposing the PD's policies implemented by the Minister of Interior Marco Minniti.[58]
Berlusconi in Trento during the electoral campaign, 2018
The main proposal of the centre-right coalition is a huge tax reform based on the introduction of a flat tax: for Berlusconi initially based on the lowest current rate (23%) with the threshold raised to €12,000, then proceeding to a gradual reduction of the rate; while according to Salvini the tax rate should be only 15%. The most notable Italian economic newspaper Il Sole 24 Ore estimated the cost of this measure at around €25 billion per year calculated with a 20% rate, or €40 billion with 15%.[59] Berlusconi also proposed the cancellation of IRAP, a tax on productivity, the increase of minimum pensions to €1,000, the introduction of a 'dignity income' to fight poverty, the decontribution on youth recruitment, changes to the Fornero law, which regulated pensions, and the launch of a 'Marshall Plan' for Africa to reduce illegal immigration to Italy.[60] Within FI there are some representatives of the Animalist Movement (MA) led by Michela Brambilla, whose main focus is in particular the banning of fur clothing and stricter controls in circuses, free veterinary care and the establishment of an ombudsman for animal rights.[61] The Lega additionally proposed the complete replacement of the Fornero law and the possibility of retirement with 41 years of contributions, the 'scrapping' of tax records for taxpayers in difficulty, an operation that should yield up to €35 billion to the State, the disbandment of Equitalia, the company that deals with the collection of taxes, the abolition of the limit on the use of cash, the regularization of prostitution;[62] moreover, Salvini's main aim is a drastic reduction of illegal immigration, by reintroducing border controls, blocking arrivals and repatriating all migrants who have no right to stay in Italy.[63] The FdI proposed free nurseries, a check for €400 per month for newborns up to the six years old, to increase population growth, parental leave paid to 80% up to the sixth year of birth, increase in salaries and equipment to law enforcement, the increased use of the Italian Army as a measure to fight crime and a new law on self-defense.[64]
The M5S presented a programme whose main points are the introduction of a basic income, known as 'income of citizenship', to fight poverty, a measure that would cost between €15 and €20 billion annually; the cut of the public debt by 40 points in relation to GDP in ten years; the adoption of measures to revitalise youth employment; a cut in pensions of over €5,000 net not entirely based on the contribution method; the reduction of IRPEF rates and the extension of the income tax threshold; the increase in spending on family welfare measures from 1.5 to 2.5% of GDP; a constitutional law that obliges members of Parliament to resign if they intend to change party, which by now is unconstitutional.[65] Di Maio also proposed a legislative simplification, starting with the elimination of almost 400 laws with a single legislative provision.[66]
LeU focused on the so-called right to study, proposing in particular the abolition of university fees for students who take the exams regularly, with the estimated cost for the state budget of €1.6 billion. LeU also proposed the reintroducing the workers' statutory protections which were eliminated by the Renzi government's Jobs Act, fighting tax evasion, corruption and organised crime.[67]
Macerata murder and attack[edit]
Salvini speaks at the final rally of his electoral campaign in Milan
On 3 February 2018, a drive-by shooting event occurred in the city of Macerata, Marche in Central Italy where six African migrants were seriously wounded.[68] A 28-year-old local man, Luca Traini, was arrested and charged with attempted murder, and was also charged for the attack against the local headquarters of the ruling PD party.[69] After the attack, Traini reportedly had an Italian flag draped on his shoulders and raised his arm in the fascist salute.[70] Traini stated that the attack was 'revenge' for Pamela Mastropietro, an 18-year-old Roman woman whose dismembered body had been found few days earlier, stuffed into two suitcases and dumped in the countryside; for this, three Nigerian drug dealers were arrested, the main suspect being 29-year-old failed asylum seeker, named Innocent Oseghale.[71][72][73]Missing body parts had sparked allegations of the murder having been a muti killing, also involving cannibalism.[74]
The case sparked anger and anti-immigrant sentiment in Macerata. Traini's lawyer reported 'alarming solidarity' for Traini expressed by the populace, while Mastropietro's mother publicly thanked Traini for 'lighting a candle' for her daughter.[75] A second autopsy of the girl's remains, published after the attack against the African migrants, revealed that Mastropietro had been strangled, stabbed, and then flayed while still alive.[76] The murder of Mastropietro and the attack by Traini, and their appraisal by Italian media and the public were 'set to become a decisive factor' in the national elections.[77]
Traini was a member and former local candidate of the Lega, and many political commentators, intellectuals and politicians harshly criticized party leader Matteo Salvini, in connection with the attack, accusing him of having 'spread hate and racism' in the country. Particularly, Roberto Saviano, the notable anti-mafia writer, labeled Salvini as the 'moral instigator' of Traini's attack.[78] Salvini responded to critics by accusing the centre-left government of responsibility for Mastropietro’s death through allowing migrants to stay in the country and having 'blood on their hands', asserting that the blame lies with those who 'fill [Italy] with illegal immigrants'.[79]
Prime Minister Gentiloni stated that he 'trusts in the sense of responsibility of all political forces. Criminals are criminals and the state will be particularly harsh with anyone that wants to fuel a spiral of violence.' Gentiloni added that 'hate and violence will not divide Italy'.[80] Also, Minister of the Interior Marco Minniti harshly condemned the attack against the Africans, saying that any political party must 'ride the hate'.[81] Renzi, whose party was also accused about its position on immigration, stated that 'calm and responsibility' from all political forces would now be necessary.[82]
Eventually, in the constituency of Macerata, the centre-right coalition led by Traini's former party, the Lega, won a plurality of the votes in the ballot, electing candidate Tullio Patassini, and showed an increase from 0.4% of the vote in 2013 to 21% in 2018, five years later.
Main parties' slogans[edit]
Party | Original slogan | English translation | Refs | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Democratic Party | Avanti, insieme | 'Forward, together' | [83][84] | |
Five Star Movement | Partecipa, Scegli, Cambia | 'Participate, Choose, Change' | [85][86] | |
Forza Italia | Onestà, Esperienza, Saggezza | 'Honesty, Experience, Wisdom' | [87][88] | |
League | Prima gli Italiani | 'Italians First' | [89][90] | |
Free and Equal | Per i molti, non per i pochi | 'For the many, not the few' | [91][92] | |
Brothers of Italy | Il voto che unisce l'Italia | 'The vote that unites Italy' | [93][94] | |
More Europe | Più Europa, serve all'Italia | 'More Europe, Italy needs it' | [95][96] | |
Together | Insieme è meglio | 'Together is better' | [97][98] | |
Popular Civic List | Il vaccino contro gli incompetenti | 'The vaccine against the incompetents' | [99][100] | |
Power to the People | Potere al Popolo | 'Power to the People' | [101][102] | |
CasaPound Italy | Vota più forte che puoi | 'Vote as strong as you can' | [103][104] |
Electoral debates[edit]
Differently from many other Western countries, in Italy the electoral debates between parties' leaders are not so common before general elections;[105] in fact the last debate between the two main candidates to premiership dated back to the 2006 general election between Silvio Berlusconi and Romano Prodi.[106] In recent years, with few exceptions, almost every main political leader had denied his participation to an electoral debate with other candidates, preferring interviews with TV hosts and journalists.[107][108][109][110]
However, many debates took places between other leading members of the main parties.
Italian general election debates, 2018 | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date | Organiser | Moderator | P Present NI Non-invitee A Absent invitee | ||||||||
Centre-left | Centre-right | M5S | LeU | ||||||||
7 November | La7 (Di Martedì) | Giovanni Floris | P Renzi | NI | A Di Maio | NI | |||||
12 December | Rai 3 (#cartabianca) | Bianca Berlinguer | P Martina | P Brunetta | NI | NI | |||||
16 January | Rai 3 (#cartabianca) | Bianca Berlinguer | P Orlando | P De Girolamo | NI | NI | |||||
30 January | Rai 3 (#cartabianca) | Bianca Berlinguer | P Emiliano | P Fedriga | NI | NI | |||||
13 February | La7 (Otto e mezzo) | Lilli Gruber | NI | P Salvini | NI | P Boldrini | |||||
13 February | Rai 3 (#cartabianca) | Bianca Berlinguer | P Lorenzin | NI | P Giarrusso | NI | |||||
27 February | Rai 3 (#cartabianca) | Bianca Berlinguer | NI | P De Girolamo | NI | P Speranza |
New electoral system[edit]
Palazzo Montecitorio, seat of the Chamber of Deputies
As a consequence of the 2016 constitutional referendum and of two different sentences of the Constitutional Court, the electoral laws for the two houses of the Italian Parliament lacked uniformity. In October 2017, the PD, AP, FI, the LN and minor parties agreed on a new electoral law,[111] which was approved by the Chamber of Deputies with 375 votes in favour and 215 against[112] and by the Senate with 214 votes against 61.[113] The reform was opposed by the M5S, the MDP, SI, FdI and minor parties.
The so-called Rosatellum bis, after Ettore Rosato (PD leader in the Chamber), is a mixed system, with 37% of seats allocated using a first-past-the-post voting and 63% using the proportional largest remainder method, with one round of voting.[114][115]
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The 630 deputies will be elected as follows:[116]
- 232 in single-member constituencies, by plurality;
- 386 in multi-member constituencies, by national proportional representation;
- 12 in multi-member abroad constituencies, by constituency proportional representation.
The 315 elective senators will be elected as follows:[116]
- 116 in single-member constituencies, by plurality;
- 193 in multi-member constituencies, by regional proportional representation;
- 6 in multi-member abroad constituencies, by constituency proportional representation.
A small, variable number of senators for life will also be members of the Senate.
Electoral package sent to an Italian voter in South America
For Italian residents, each house members will be elected in single ballots, including the constituency candidate and his/her supporting party lists. In each single-member constituency the deputy/senator is elected on a plurality basis, while the seats in multi-member constituencies will be allocated nationally. In order to be calculated in single-member constituency results, parties need to obtain at least 1% of the national vote. In order to receive seats in multi-member constituencies, parties need to obtain at least 3% of the national vote. Elects from multi-member constituencies will come from closed lists.[117]
The voting paper, which is a single one for the first-past-the-post and the proportional systems, shows the names of the candidates to single-member constituencies and, in close conjunction with them, the symbols of the linked lists for the proportional part, each one with a list of the relative candidates.[118]
The voter will be able to cast their vote in three different ways:[119]
- Drawing a sign on the symbol of a list: in this case the vote extends to the candidate in the single-member constituency which is supported by that list.
- Drawing a sign on the name of the candidate of the single-member constituency and another one on the symbol of one list that supports them: the result is the same as that described above; it is not allowed, under penalty of annulment, the panachage, so the voter can not vote simultaneously for a candidate in the FPTP constituency and for a list which is not linked to them.
- Drawing a sign only on the name of the candidate for the FPTP constituency, without indicating any list: in this case, the vote is valid for the candidate in the single-member constituency and also automatically extended to the list that supports them; if that candidate is however connected to several lists, the vote is divided proportionally between them, based on the votes that each one has obtained in that constituency.
Coalitions and parties[edit]
The following table includes the coalitions and parties running in the majority of multi-member constituencies.
Coalition | Party | Main ideology | Leader | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
League (Lega) | Right-wing populism | Matteo Salvini | |||
Forza Italia (FI) | Liberal conservatism | Silvio Berlusconi | |||
Brothers of Italy (FdI) | National conservatism | Giorgia Meloni | |||
Us with Italy–UdC (NcI–UdC) | Christian democracy | Raffaele Fitto | |||
Democratic Party (PD) | Social democracy | Matteo Renzi | |||
More Europe (+Eu) | Liberalism | Emma Bonino | |||
Italy Europe Together (IEI) | Progressivism | Giulio Santagata | |||
Popular Civic List (CP) | Christian democracy | Beatrice Lorenzin | |||
SVP–PATT | Regionalism | Philipp Achammer | |||
Five Star Movement (M5S) | Populism | Luigi Di Maio | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | Social democracy | Pietro Grasso | |||
Power to the People (PaP) | Communism | Viola Carofalo | |||
CasaPound Italy (CPI) | Neo-fascism | Simone Di Stefano | |||
The People of Family (PdF) | Social conservatism | Mario Adinolfi |
Opinion polling[edit]
6-point average trend line of poll results from 25 February 2013 to the present day, with each line corresponding to a political party.M5S
SC
Lega
FdI
MDP
LeU
CP
Voter turnout[edit]
Region | Time | ||
---|---|---|---|
12:00 | 19:00 | 23:00 | |
Abruzzo | 19.38% | 61.29% | 75.25% |
Aosta Valley | 21.24% | 59.01% | 72.27% |
Apulia | 17.97% | 53.68% | 68.94% |
Basilicata | 16.27% | 53.12% | 71.11% |
Calabria | 15.11% | 49.55% | 63.78% |
Campania | 16.96% | 52.59% | 68.20% |
Emilia-Romagna | 22.72% | 65.99% | 78.26% |
Friuli-Venezia Giulia | 22.56% | 62.45% | 75.11% |
Lazio | 18.88% | 55.47% | 72.58% |
Liguria | 21.78% | 61.04% | 71.96% |
Lombardy | 20.92% | 62.29% | 76.81% |
Marche | 19.81% | 62.22% | 77.28% |
Molise | 17.88% | 56.46% | 71.76% |
Piedmont | 20.44% | 61.88% | 75.17% |
Sardinia | 18.34% | 52.49% | 65.39% |
Sicily | 14.27% | 47.06% | 62.72% |
Tuscany | 21.17% | 63.87% | 77.34% |
Trentino-Alto Adige | 20.85% | 60.57% | 74.34% |
Umbria | 20.55% | 64.86% | 78.22% |
Veneto | 22.24% | 64.61% | 78.72% |
Total | 19.43% | 58.42% | 72.94% |
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
Results for the Chamber of Deputies[edit]
Overall results[edit]
Coalition | Party | Proportional | First-past-the-post | Italians abroad | Total seats | +/− | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Votes | % | Seats | Votes | % | Seats | Votes | % | Seats | ||||||
Centre-right coalition | League | 5,698,687 | 17.35 | 73 | 12,152,345 | 37.00 | 49 | 240,072 | 21.43 | 2 | 125 | +109 | ||
Forza Italia | 4,596,956 | 14.00 | 59 | 46 | 1 | 104 | +1 | |||||||
Brothers of Italy | 1,429,550 | 4.35 | 19 | 12 | 0 | 32 | +25 | |||||||
Us with Italy–UdC | 427,152 | 1.30 | 0 | 4 | 11,845 | 1.09 | 0 | 4 | New | |||||
Total seats | 151 | 111 | 3 | 265 | – | |||||||||
Five Star Movement | 10,732,066 | 32.68 | 133 | 10,732,066 | 32.68 | 93 | 197,346 | 17.57 | 1 | 227 | +119 | |||
Centre-left coalition | Democratic Party | 6,161,896 | 18.76 | 86 | 7,506,723 | 22.85 | 21 | 297,153 | 26.45 | 5 | 112 | −180 | ||
More Europe | 841,468 | 2.56 | 0 | 2 | 64,350 | 5.73 | 1 | 3 | New | |||||
Together | 190,601 | 0.58 | 0 | 1 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 1 | New | |||||
Popular Civic List | 178,107 | 0.54 | 0 | 2 | 32.071 | 2.85 | 0 | 2 | New | |||||
SVP–PATT | 134,651 | 0.41 | 2 | 2 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 4 | −1 | |||||
Total seats | 88 | 28 | 6 | 122 | – | |||||||||
Free and Equal | 1,114,799 | 3.38 | 14 | 1,114,799 | 3.39 | 0 | 64,523 | 5.74 | 0 | 14 | New | |||
Associative Movement Italians Abroad | N/A | N/A | 0 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 107,236 | 9.55 | 1 | 1 | −1 | |||
South American Union Italian Emigrants | N/A | N/A | 0 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 68,291 | 6.08 | 1 | 1 | – | |||
Total | 630 | – |
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Proportional[edit]
Party | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 10,732,066 | 32.68 | 133 | |||
Democratic Party (PD) | 6,161,896 | 18.76 | 86 | |||
League (Lega) | 5,698,687 | 17.35 | 73 | |||
Forza Italia (FI) | 4,596,956 | 14.00 | 59 | |||
Brothers of Italy (FdI) | 1,429,550 | 4.35 | 19 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 1,114,799 | 3.39 | 14 | |||
More Europe (+Eu) | 841,468 | 2.56 | 0 | |||
Us with Italy–UdC (NcI–UdC) | 427,152 | 1.30 | 0 | |||
Power to the People (PaP) | 372,179 | 1.13 | 0 | |||
CasaPound Italy (CPI) | 312,432 | 0.95 | 0 | |||
The People of Family (PdF) | 219,633 | 0.67 | 0 | |||
Together (PSI–FdV–AC) | 190,601 | 0.58 | 0 | |||
Popular Civic List (IdV–CpE–UpT–IP–AP) | 178,107 | 0.54 | 0 | |||
South Tyrolean People's Party–PATT (SVP–PATT) | 134,651 | 0.41 | 2 | |||
Italy for the Italians (FN–FT) | 126,543 | 0.39 | 0 | |||
Communist Party (PC) | 106,816 | 0.33 | 0 | |||
Human Value Party (PVU) | 47,953 | 0.15 | 0 | |||
10 Times Better (10VM) | 37,354 | 0.11 | 0 | |||
For a Revolutionary Left (PCL–SCR) | 29,364 | 0.09 | 0 | |||
Italian Republican Party–ALA (PRI–ALA) | 20,943 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Great North (GN) | 19,846 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Autodetermination | 19,307 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
People's List for the Constitution (LdP) | 9,921 | 0.02 | 0 | |||
Pact for Autonomy (PpA) | 7,079 | 0.02 | 0 | |||
National Bloc for Freedoms (IR–DC) | 3,628 | 0.01 | 0 | |||
SìAmo | 1,428 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Renaissance–MIR | 772 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Italy in the Heart | 574 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Total | 32,841,705 | 100.00 | 386 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 1,471,727 | 4.33 | – | |||
Total turnout | 33,923,321 | 72.94 | – | |||
Registered voters | 46,505,499 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
First-past-the-post[edit]
Party or coalition | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Centre-right coalition (CDX) | 12,152,345 | 37.00 | 111 | |||
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 10,727,567 | 32.68 | 93 | |||
Centre-left coalition (CSX) | 7,506,723 | 22.85 | 28 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 1,114,799 | 3.39 | 0 | |||
Power to the People (PaP) | 372,179 | 1.13 | 0 | |||
CasaPound Italy (CPI) | 312,432 | 0.95 | 0 | |||
The People of Family (PdF) | 219,633 | 0.67 | 0 | |||
Italy for the Italians (FN–FT) | 126,543 | 0.39 | 0 | |||
Communist Party (PC) | 106,816 | 0.33 | 0 | |||
Human Value Party (PVU) | 47,953 | 0.15 | 0 | |||
10 Times Better (10VM) | 37,354 | 0.11 | 0 | |||
For a Revolutionary Left (PCL–SCR) | 29,364 | 0.09 | 0 | |||
Italian Republican Party–ALA (PRI–ALA) | 20,943 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Great North (GN) | 19,846 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Autodetermination | 19,307 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Others | 23,402 | 0.07 | 0 | |||
Total | 32,841,025 | 100.00 | 231 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 1,471,727 | 4.33 | – | |||
Total turnout | 33,923,321 | 72.94 | – | |||
Registered voters | 46,505,499 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
Italians abroad[edit]
Twelve members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by Italians abroad. Two members are elected for North America and Central America (including most of the Caribbean), four members for South America (including Trinidad and Tobago), five members for Europe, and one member for the rest of the world (Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Antarctica). Voters in these regions select candidate lists and may also cast a preference vote for individual candidates. The seats are allocated by proportional representation.
The electoral law allows for parties to form different coalitions on the lists abroad, compared to the lists in Italy; in fact Forza Italia, Lega and Brothers of Italy formed a unified list for abroad constituencies.[120]
Party (or a unified coalition list) | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Democratic Party (PD) | 297,153 | 26.45 | 5 | |||
League – Forza Italia – Brothers of Italy (Lega–FI–FdI) | 240,702 | 21.43 | 3 | |||
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 197,346 | 17.57 | 1 | |||
Associative Movement Italians Abroad (MAIE) | 107,236 | 9.55 | 1 | |||
South American Union Italian Emigrants (USEI) | 68,291 | 6.08 | 1 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 64,523 | 5.74 | 0 | |||
More Europe (+Eu) | 64,350 | 5.73 | 1 | |||
Popular Civic List (CP) | 32,071 | 2.85 | 0 | |||
Latin America Tricolor Union | 25,555 | 2.27 | 0 | |||
Us with Italy–UdC (NcI–UdC) | 12,396 | 1.10 | 0 | |||
Freedom Movement | 10,590 | 0.94 | 0 | |||
Italian Republican Party–ALA (PRI–ALA) | 2,270 | 0.20 | 0 | |||
Free Flights to Italy | 946 | 0.08 | 0 | |||
Total | 1,123,429 | 100.00 | 12 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 156,755 | 12.42 | – | |||
Total turnout | 1,262,422 | 29.84 | – | |||
Registered voters | 4,230,854 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
Results for the Senate of the Republic[edit]
Overall results[edit]
Coalition | Party | Proportional | First-past-the-post | Italians abroad | Total seats | +/− | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Votes | % | Seats | Votes | % | Seats | Votes | % | Seats | ||||||
Centre-right coalition | League | 5,321,537 | 17.61 | 37 | 11,327,549 | 37.50 | 21 | 226,885 | 21.98 | 0 | 58 | +39 | ||
Forza Italia | 4,358,004 | 14.43 | 33 | 23 | 2 | 57 | –41 | |||||||
Brothers of Italy | 1,286,606 | 4.26 | 7 | 9 | 0 | 18 | +18 | |||||||
Us with Italy–UdC | 361,402 | 1.20 | 0 | 4 | 10,404 | 1.04 | 0 | 4 | New | |||||
Total seats | 77 | 58 | 2 | 137 | – | |||||||||
Five Star Movement | 9,733,928 | 32.22 | 68 | 9,733,928 | 32.22 | 44 | 174,948 | 17.64 | 0 | 112 | +58 | |||
Centre-left coalition | Democratic Party | 5,783,360 | 19.14 | 43 | 6,947,199 | 23.00 | 8 | 279,489 | 27.08 | 2 | 53 | –57 | ||
More Europe | 714,821 | 2.37 | 0 | 1 | 55,625 | 5.39 | 0 | 1 | New | |||||
Together | 163,454 | 0.54 | 0 | 1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | New | |||||
Popular Civic List | 157,282 | 0.52 | 0 | 1 | 31,293 | 3.15 | 0 | 1 | New | |||||
SVP–PATT | 128,282 | 0.42 | 1 | 2 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 3 | –1 | |||||
Aosta Valley | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | ±0 | |||||
Total seats | 44 | 14 | 2 | 60 | – | |||||||||
Free and Equal | 991,159 | 3.28 | 4 | 991,159 | 3.28 | 0 | 55,279 | 5.57 | 0 | 4 | New | |||
Associative Movement Italians Abroad | N/A | N/A | 0 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 110,879 | 10.74 | 1 | 1 | – | |||
South American Union Italian Emigrants | N/A | N/A | 0 | N/A | N/A | 0 | 68,233 | 6.61 | 1 | 1 | – | |||
Total | 315 | – |
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Proportional[edit]
Party | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 9,733,928 | 32.22 | 68 | |||
Democratic Party (PD) | 5,783,360 | 19.14 | 43 | |||
League (Lega) | 5,321,537 | 17.61 | 37 | |||
Forza Italia (FI) | 4,358,004 | 14.43 | 33 | |||
Brothers of Italy (FdI) | 1,286,606 | 4.26 | 7 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 991,159 | 3.28 | 4 | |||
More Europe (+Eu) | 714,821 | 2.37 | 0 | |||
Us with Italy–UdC (NcI–UdC) | 361,402 | 1.20 | 0 | |||
Power to the People (PaP) | 320,493 | 1.06 | 0 | |||
CasaPound Italy (CPI) | 259,718 | 0.86 | 0 | |||
The People of Family (PdF) | 211,759 | 0.70 | 0 | |||
Together (PSI–FdV–AC) | 163,454 | 0.54 | 0 | |||
Popular Civic List (IdV–CpE–UpT–IP–AP) | 157,282 | 0.52 | 0 | |||
Italy for the Italians (FN–FT) | 149,907 | 0.50 | 0 | |||
South Tyrolean People's Party–PATT (SVP–PATT) | 128,282 | 0.42 | 1 | |||
Communist Party (PC) | 101,648 | 0.34 | 0 | |||
Human Value Party (PVU) | 38,749 | 0.12 | 0 | |||
For a Revolutionary Left (PCL–SCR) | 32,623 | 0.11 | 0 | |||
Italian Republican Party–ALA (PRI–ALA) | 27,384 | 0.09 | 0 | |||
Autodetermination | 20,468 | 0.07 | 0 | |||
Great North (GN) | 17,507 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
People's List for the Constitution (LdP) | 10,356 | 0.03 | 0 | |||
United Right – Pitchforks | 6,229 | 0.02 | 0 | |||
Christian Democracy (DC) | 5,532 | 0.02 | 0 | |||
Pact for Autonomy (PpA) | 5,015 | 0.02 | 0 | |||
SìAmo | 1,402 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Modern and Solidary State | 1,384 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Renaissance–MIR | 552 | 0.00 | 0 | |||
Total | 30,210,561 | 100.00 | 193 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 1,398,216 | 4.48 | – | |||
Total turnout | 31,231,814 | 73.01 | – | |||
Registered voters | 42,780,033 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
First-past-the-post[edit]
Party or coalition | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Centre-right coalition (CDX) | 11,327,549 | 37.50 | 58 | |||
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 9,733,928 | 32.22 | 44 | |||
Centre-left coalition (CSX) | 6,947,199 | 23.00 | 14 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 991,159 | 3.28 | 0 | |||
Power to the People (PaP) | 320,493 | 1.06 | 0 | |||
CasaPound Italy (CPI) | 259,718 | 0.86 | 0 | |||
The People of Family (PdF) | 211,759 | 0.70 | 0 | |||
Italy for the Italians (FN–FT) | 149,907 | 0.50 | 0 | |||
Communist Party (PC) | 101,648 | 0.34 | 0 | |||
Human Value Party (PVU) | 38,749 | 0.12 | 0 | |||
For a Revolutionary Left (PCL–SCR) | 32,623 | 0.11 | 0 | |||
Italian Republican Party–ALA (PRI–ALA) | 27,384 | 0.09 | 0 | |||
Autodetermination | 20,468 | 0.07 | 0 | |||
Great North (GN) | 17,507 | 0.06 | 0 | |||
Others | 30,470 | 0.10 | 0 | |||
Total | 30,210,363 | 100.00 | 116 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 1,398,216 | 4.48 | – | |||
Total turnout | 31,231,814 | 73.01 | – | |||
Registered voters | 42,780,033 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
Italians abroad[edit]
Party (or a unified coalition list) | Votes | % | Seats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Democratic Party (PD) | 279,489 | 27.08 | 2 | |||
League – Forza Italia – Brothers of Italy (Lega–FI–FdI) | 226,885 | 21.98 | 2 | |||
Five Star Movement (M5S) | 182,715 | 17.70 | 0 | |||
Associative Movement Italians Abroad (MAIE) | 110,879 | 10.74 | 1 | |||
South American Union Italian Emigrants (USEI) | 68,233 | 6.61 | 1 | |||
Free and Equal (LeU) | 57,761 | 5.60 | 0 | |||
More Europe (+Eu) | 55,625 | 5.39 | 0 | |||
Popular Civic List (CP) | 32,660 | 3.16 | 0 | |||
Us with Italy–UdC (NcI-UdC) | 10,856 | 1.05 | 0 | |||
Freedom Movement | 6,960 | 0.67 | 0 | |||
Total | 1,032,063 | 100.00 | 6 | |||
Invalid / blank / unassigned votes | 146,430 | 12.61 | – | |||
Total turnout | 1,160,985 | 30.27 | – | |||
Registered voters | 4,230,854 | – | – | |||
Source: Ministry of the Interior |
Leaders' races[edit]
Di Maio and Renzi run in a single-member constituency, respectively in Acerra, near Naples, for the Chamber of Deputies and in Florence for the Senate. Salvini ran in many multi-member constituencies through the country and, due to the mechanism of the electoral law, he was elected in Calabria.[121]
2018 general election (C): Acerra | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Candidate | Party | Votes | % | |
Luigi Di Maio | Five Star Movement | 95,219 | 63.4 | |
Vittorio Sgarbi | Centre-right coalition | 30,596 | 20.4 | |
Antonio Falcone | Centre-left coalition | 18,018 | 12.0 | |
Others | 6,315 | 4.1 | ||
Total | 150,148 | 100.0 |
2018 general election (S): Florence | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Candidate | Party | Votes | % | |
Matteo Renzi | Centre-left coalition | 109,830 | 43.9 | |
Alberto Bagnai | Centre-right coalition | 61,642 | 24.6 | |
Nicola Cecchi | Five Star Movement | 49,925 | 19.9 | |
Others | 28,797 | 11.4 | ||
Total | 256,879 | 100.0 |
Maps[edit]
- Winning candidates in constituencies for the Chamber of Deputies.
- Winning candidates in constituencies for the Senate of the Republic.
Analysis of proportionality[edit]
Chamber of Deputies[edit]
The disproportionality of the Chamber of Deputies in the 2018 election was 5.50 using the Gallagher Index.
Coalition | Vote Share(%) | Seat Share(%) | Difference | Difference² | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Centre-right coalition | 37.00 | 42.06 | +5.06 | 25.60 | |
Five Star Movement | 32.68 | 36.03 | +3.35 | 11.22 | |
Centre-left coalition | 22.85 | 19.36 | −3.49 | 12.18 | |
Free and Equal | 3.39 | 2.22 | −1.17 | 1.37 | |
Power to the People | 1.13 | 0.00 | −1.13 | 1.28 | |
Others | 2.97 | 0.00 | −2.97 | 8.82 | |
TOTAL | 60.47 | ||||
TOTAL /2 | 30.24 | ||||
√TOTAL /2 | 5.50 |
Senate of the Republic[edit]
The disproportionality of the Senate of the Republic in the 2018 election was 6.12 using the Gallagher Index.
Coalition | Vote Share(%) | Seat Share(%) | Difference | Difference² | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Centre-right coalition | 37.49 | 42.86 | +5.37 | 28.84 | |
Five Star Movement | 32.22 | 35.56 | +3.34 | 11.16 | |
Centre-left coalition | 22.99 | 18.41 | −4.58 | 20.98 | |
Free and Equal | 3.28 | 1.27 | −2.01 | 4.04 | |
Power to the People | 1.05 | 0.00 | −1.05 | 1.10 | |
Others | 2.97 | 0.00 | −2.97 | 8.82 | |
TOTAL | 74.93 | ||||
TOTAL /2 | 37.47 | ||||
√TOTAL /2 | 6.12 |
Electorate demographics[edit]
Sociology of the electorate | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demographic | Centre-right | M5S | Centre-left | LeU | Others | Turnout |
Total vote | 37.0% | 32.7% | 22.9% | 3.4% | 4.0% | 72.9% |
Sex | ||||||
Men | 36.8% | 32.8% | 22.9% | 3.5% | 4.0% | 72.5% |
Women | 37.1% | 32.9% | 22.9% | 2.7% | 3.7% | 68.3% |
Age | ||||||
18–34 years old | 34.4% | 35.3% | 21.5% | 5.0% | 3.8% | 70.1% |
35–49 years old | 37.4% | 35.4% | 20.3% | 2.7% | 4.2% | 72.2% |
50–64 years old | 38.3% | 34.0% | 20.1% | 3.2% | 4.4% | 72.4% |
65 or older | 36.9% | 27.1% | 30.1% | 3.0% | 2.9% | 66.3% |
Occupation | ||||||
Student | 29.9% | 32.3% | 24.4% | 8.2% | 5.2% | 66.8% |
Unemployed | 41.8% | 37.2% | 15.1% | 0.6% | 5.3% | 63.7% |
Housewife | 41.1% | 36.1% | 17.4% | 1.8% | 3.6% | 65.9% |
Blue-collar | 42.6% | 37.0% | 14.1% | 1.3% | 5.0% | 72.0% |
White-collar | 29.4% | 36.1% | 25.4% | 5.6% | 3.5% | 75.6% |
Self-employed | 46.9% | 31.8% | 15.1% | 2.3% | 3.9% | 73.3% |
Manager | 31.8% | 31.2% | 29.5% | 3.3% | 4.2% | 77.9% |
Retired | 36.6% | 26.4% | 30.5% | 3.7% | 2.8% | 68.8% |
Work sector | ||||||
Public sector | 29.7% | 41.6% | 24.0% | 1.7% | 3.9% | 71.8% |
Private sector | 35.6% | 34.0% | 22.0% | 4.3% | 4.1% | 72.7% |
Education | ||||||
Elementary school | 36.1% | 30.0% | 28.5% | 2.3% | 3.1% | 64.9% |
Middle school | 42.7% | 33.3% | 18.4% | 2.2% | 3.4% | 70.5% |
High school | 34.9% | 36.1% | 20.3% | 4.7% | 4.0% | 74.1% |
University | 28.8% | 29.3% | 31.4% | 5.5% | 5.0% | 72.0% |
Religious service attendance | ||||||
Weekly or more | 38.2% | 30.9% | 26.0% | 2.2% | 2.7% | 68.9% |
Monthly | 44.6% | 31.4% | 18.5% | 2.6% | 2.9% | 72.0% |
Occasionally | 38.6% | 34.9% | 20.0% | 3.2% | 3.3% | 71.2% |
Never | 30.8% | 33.7% | 24.8% | 5.2% | 5.5% | 69.9% |
Source: Ipsos Italia[122] |
Government formation[edit]
Giorgia Meloni, Matteo Salvini, and Silvio Berlusconi at the Quirinal Palace
After the election's results were known, both Luigi Di Maio and Matteo Salvini stated that they must receive from President Sergio Mattarella the task of forming a new cabinet because they led the largest party and the largest coalition, respectively.[123] On 5 March, Matteo Renzi announced that the PD will be in the opposition during this legislature and he will resign as party leader when a new cabinet is formed.[124] On 6 March, Salvini repeated his campaign message that his party would refuse any coalition with the M5S.[125] On 14 March, Salvini nonetheless offered to govern with the M5S, imposing the condition that League ally Forza Italia, led by ex premier Silvio Berlusconi, must also take part in any coalition. Di Maio rejected this proposal on the grounds that Salvini was 'choosing restoration instead of revolution' because 'Berlusconi represents the past'.[126][127]
On 12 March, Renzi resigned as party leader and was replaced by deputy secretary Maurizio Martina.
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On 24 March, the centre-right coalition and the Five Star Movement agreed on the election of presidents of the Houses of Parliament, Roberto Fico of the M5S for the Chamber and Maria Elisabetta Alberti Casellati of FI for the Senate.[128][129][130]
On 7 April, Di Maio made an appeal to the PD to 'bury the hatchet' and consider a governing coalition with his party.[127]
On 18 April, President Mattarella gave newly-elected Senate president Alberti Casellati a so-called 'exploratory mandate' to form a government of M5S and the centre-right alliance, with a two-day deadline.[131]
On 23 April, President Mattarella gave newly elected Chamber of Deputies president Fico an 'exploratory mandate' to form a government between M5S and the Democratic Party, with a three-day deadline. The decision came after the previous attempt by Alberti Casellati failed to show any progress.[132]
On 30 April, following an interview of the former PD’s leader Matteo Renzi who expressed his strong opposition to an alliance with the M5S, Di Maio called for new elections.[133][134][135]
On 7 May, President Mattarella held a third round of government formation talks, after which he formally confirmed the lack of any possible majority (M5S rejecting an alliance with the whole centre-right coalition, PD rejecting an alliance with both M5S and the centre-right coalition, and the League's Matteo Salvini refusing to start a government with M5S but without Berlusconi's Forza Italia party, whose presence in the government was explicitly vetoed by M5S's leader Luigi Di Maio); on the same circumstance, he announced his intention to soon appoint a 'neutral government' (irrespective of M5S and League's refusal to support such an option) to take over from the Gentiloni Cabinet which was considered unable to lead Italy into a second consecutive election as it was representing a majority from a past legislature, and offering an early election in July as a realistic option to take into consideration due to the deadlock situation.[136]
Carlo Cottarelli at the Quirinal Palace
On 9 May, after a day of rumours, both M5S and the League officially requested President Mattarella to give them 24 more hours to strike a government agreement between the two parties.[137] Later the same day, in the evening, Silvio Berlusconi publicly announced Forza Italia would not support a M5S-League government on a vote of confidence, but he would still maintain the centre-right alliance nonetheless, thus opening the doors to a possible majority government between the two parties.[138]
On 13 May, the Five Star Movement and League reached an agreement on a government program, likely clearing the way for the formation of a governing coalition between the two parties, but they are still negotiating the members of a government cabinet, including the prime minister. 5 Star and League leaders were slated to meet with Italian President Sergio Mattarella on 14 May to guide the formation of a new government.[139]
On 17 May, Five Star Movement and League agreed to the details regarding the government program, officially clearing the way for the formation of a governing coalition between the two parties.[140] The final draft of their program was then published on 18 May.[141]
On 18 May, 44,796 members of the Five Star Movement cast their vote online on the matter concerning the government agreement, with 42,274, more than 94%, voting in favour.[142][143] A second vote sponsored by the Northern League then took place on 19 May and 20 May and was open to the general public.[144] On 20 May, it was announced that approximately 215,000 Italian citizens had participated in the Northern League election, with around 91 percent supporting the government agreement.[145]
On 21 May, the Five Star Movement and the League proposed law professor Giuseppe Conte as Prime Minister.[146][147] On 23 May, Conte was invited to the Quirinal Palace to receive the task of forming a new cabinet and was granted a mandate by Italian President Mattarella.[148][149]
However, on 27 May 2018, the designated Prime Minister Conte renounced to his office, due to contrasts between the League's leader Salvini and President Mattarella. In fact, Salvini proposed the university professor Paolo Savona as Minister of Economy and Finances, but Mattarella strongly opposed him, considering Savona too Eurosceptic and anti-German.[150] In his speech after Conte's resignation, Mattarella declared that the two parties wanted to bring Italy out of the Eurozone, and as the guarantor of Italian Constitution and country's interest and stability he could not allow this.[151][152] On the following day, Mattarella gave Carlo Cottarelli, an economist and former IMF director, the task of forming a new government.[153]
Giuseppe Conte at the Quirinal Palace
In the statement released after the designation, Cottarelli specified that in case of confidence by the Parliament, he would contribute to the approval of the budget law for 2019, then the Parliament would be dissolved and a new general election would be called for the beginning of 2019. In the absence of confidence, the government would deal only with the so-called current affairs and lead the country toward new elections after August 2018. Cottarelli also guaranteed the neutrality of the government and the commitment not to run for the next election.[154] He ensured a prudent management of Italian national debt and the defense of national interests through a constructive dialogue with the European Union.[155]
On 28 May 2018, the Democratic Party announced that they will vote the confidence to Cottarelli, while the Five Star Movement and the centre-right parties Forza Italia, Brothers of Italy and the League announced their vote against.[156][157] Cottarelli was expected to submit his list of ministers for approval to President Mattarella on 29 May. However, on 29 May and 30 May he held only informal consultations with the President. According to the Italian media, he is facing difficulties due to the unwillingness of several potential candidates to serve as ministers in his cabinet and may even renounce.[158][159] Meanwhile, Matteo Salvini and Luigi Di Maio announced their willingness to restart the negotiations to form a political government, and the leader of Brothers of Italy Giorgia Meloni gave her support to the initiative.[158][159][160] The government was formed the following day.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Elections in Italy (2018). |
Notes[edit]
- ^Renzi was the leader of the Democratic Party since 15 December 2013. However, Renzi resigned after the failed 2016 constitutional referendum only to re-win the Democratic Party leadership on 30 April 2017.
- ^As leader of the party that won the most votes within the coalition.
- ^Salvini ran as the capolista (list leader) for the League in 5 proportional constituencies, namely Calabria 1, Lazio 1, Lombardy 4, Liguria 1 and Sicily 2.[3]
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Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_Italian_general_election&oldid=905211931'
Enema | |
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Pronunciation | /ˈɛnəmə/ |
Other names | Clyster |
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An enema, also known as a clyster, is an injection of fluid into the lower bowel by way of the rectum.[1] Also, the word enema can refer to the liquid so injected,[2][3] as well as to a device for administering such an injection.[4]
In standard medicine, the most frequent uses of enemas are to relieve constipation and for bowel cleansing before a medical examination or procedure;[5] also, they are employed as a lower gastrointestinal series (also called a barium enema),[6] to check diarrhea,[7] as a vehicle for the administration of food, water or medicine, as a stimulant to the general system, as a local application and, more rarely, as a means of reducing temperature,[1] as treatment for encopresis, and as a form of rehydration therapy (proctoclysis) in patients for whom intravenous therapy is not applicable.[8]
In other contexts, enemas are used by some alternative health therapies, used for enjoyment, chiefly as part of sexual activities, but also in sadomasochism, as well as simply for pleasure, used to intoxicate with alcohol, used to administer drugs for both recreational and religious reasons, and used for punishment.
- 1Medical usage
- 1.1Bowel cleansing
- 1.1.1Acute treatments
- 1.1.1.1Large volume enemas
- 1.1.1.2Micro-enemas
- 1.1.2Chronic treatments
- 1.1.1Acute treatments
- 1.1Bowel cleansing
- 4Society and culture
- 4.1Alternative medicine
- 4.1.1Benign
- 4.1.2Dangerous
- 4.2Recreational usage
- 4.5In arts and literature
- 4.1Alternative medicine
Medical usage[edit]
The principal medical usages of enemas are:
Bowel cleansing[edit]
Acute treatments[edit]
As bowel stimulants, enemas are employed for the same purposes as orally administered laxatives: To relieve constipation; To treat fecal impaction; To empty the colon prior to a medical procedure such as a colonoscopy. A large volume of enema[9] can be given to cleanse as much of the colon as possible of feces.[10][11] However, a low enema is generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.[12]
Such enemas' mechanism consists of the volume of the liquid causing rapid expansion of the intestinal tract in conjunction with, in the case of certain solutions, irritation of the intestinal mucosa, resulting in powerful peristalsis and a feeling of extreme fecal urgency. The enema is retained until there is a tremendous, uncontrollable urge to defecate, at which time the recipient may expel any fecal matter loosened by the instilled solution together with the solution itself.
The procedure may cause uncomfortable bloating[citation needed] and cramping.[13]
Large volume enemas[edit]
Soapsuds enemas, in a can with a nozzle typical for a cleansing enema, and in a contrast enema bag with a barium nozzle.
Water-based solutions[edit]
Plain water can be used, simply functioning mechanically to expand the colon, thus prompting evacuation.
Castile soap is commonly added because its irritation of the colon's lining increases the urgency to defecate.[14]
Glycerol is a specific bowel mucosa irritant serving to induce peristalsis via a hyperosmotic effect.[15] It is used in a dilute solution, e.g., 5%.[16]
Normal saline is least irritating to the colon, at the opposite end of the spectrum. Like plain water, it simply functions mechanically to expand the colon, but having a neutral concentration gradient, it neither draws electrolytes from the body, as happens with plain water, nor draws water into the colon, as occurs with phosphates. Thus, a salt water solution can be used when a longer period of retention is desired, such as to soften an impaction.
Likewise, mild hand soap can be dissolved in the water.[17][dubious] However, liquid handsoaps and detergents should not be used.[5]
Likewise, bakingsoda (sodium bicarbonate) can be dissolved in the water.[17][dubious]
Other solutions[edit]
Equal parts of milk and molasses heated together to slightly above normal body temperature have been used.[18] Neither the milk sugars and proteins nor the molasses are absorbed in the lower intestine, thus keeping the water from the enema in the intestine.[19] Studies have shown that milk and molasses enemas have a low complication rate when used in the emergency department[20] and are safe and effective with minimal side effects.[21]
Mineral oil functions as a lubricant and stool softener, but may have side effects including rectal skin irritation and leakage of oil[22] which can soil undergarments for up to 24 hours.[citation needed]
Micro-enemas[edit]
A prepared, disposable enema.
Single substance solutions[edit]
In alphabetical order
Arachis oil (peanut oil) enema is useful for softening stools which are impacted higher than the rectum.[23]
Bisacodyl stimulas enteric nerves to cause colonic contractions.[24][25]
Dantron is a stimulant drug and stool softener[26] used alone or in combinations in enemas.[27] Considered to be a carcinogen[28] its use is limited, e.g., restricted in the UK to patients who already have a diagnosis of terminal cancer and not used at all in the USA.
Docusate[29][30]
Glycerol has a hyperosmotic effect and can be used as a small-volume (2–10 ml) enema (or suppository).[15]
Mineral oil is used as a lubricant because most of the ingested material is excreted in the stool rather than being absorbed by the body.[31]
Sodium phosphate.[32][33] Known adverse effects.Bufferedsodium phosphate solution draws additional water from the bloodstream into the colon to increase the effectiveness of the enema, but can be rather irritating to the colon, causing intense cramping or 'griping.'
Sorbitol pulls water into the large intestines causing distention, thereby stimulating the normal forward movement of the bowels. Sorbitol is found in some dried fruits and may contribute to the laxative effects of prunes.[34] and is available for taking orally as a laxative.[35][36] As an enema for constipation, the recommended adult dose is 120 mL of 25-30% solution, administered once.[37] Note that Sorbitol is an ingredient of the MICROLAX® Enema.
Compounded from multiple ingredients[edit]
In alphabetical order of the original brand names
Klyx contains docusate sodium 1 mg/mL and sorbitol solution (70%) (crystallising) 357 mg/mL and is used for faecal impaction or constipation or for colon evacuation prior medical procedures,[38] developed by Ferring B.V.
Micralax (not to be confused with MICROLAX®)[39]
MICROLAX® (not to be confused with Micralax) combines the action of sodium citrate, a peptidising agent which can displace bound water present in the faeces, with sodium alkyl sulphoacetate, a wetting agent, and with glycerol, an anal mucosa irritant and hyperosmotic. However, also sold under the name 'Micralax', is a preparation containing sorbitol rather than glycerol;[40] which was initially tested in preparation for sigmoidoscopy.[41]
Micolette Micro-enema® contains 45 mg sodium lauryl sulphoacetate, 450 mg per 5 ml sodium citrate BP, and 625 mg glycerol BP[42] and is a small volume stimulant enema suitable where large-volume enemas are contra-indicated.[23]
Chronic treatments[edit]
Transanal irrigation[edit]
TAI, also termed retrograde irrigation, is designed to assist evacuation using a water enema[43] as a treatment for persons with bowel dysfunction, including fecal incontinence or constipation, especially obstructed defecation. By regularly emptying the bowel using transanal irrigation,[44] controlled bowel function is often re-established to a high degree, thus enabling development of a consistent bowel routine.[44] Its effectiveness varies considerably, some individuals experiencing complete control of incontinence but others reporting little or no benefit.[43]
An international consensus on when and how to use transanal irrigation for people with bowel problems was published in 2013, offering practitioners a clear, comprehensive and simple guide to practice for the emerging therapeutic area of transanal irrigation.[44]
The term retrograde irrigation distinguishes this procedure from the Malone antegrade continence enema, where irrigation fluid is introduced into the colon proximal to the anus via a surgically created irrigation port.
Bowel management[edit]
Patients who have a bowel disability, a medical condition which impairs control of defecation, e.g., fecal incontinence or constipation,[45] can use bowel management techniques to choose a predictable time and place to evacuate.[45] Without bowel management, such persons might either suffer from the feeling of not getting relief, or they might soil themselves.[45]
While simple techniques might include a controlled diet and establishing a toilet routine,[45] a daily enema can be taken to empty the colon, thus preventing unwanted and uncontrolled bowel movements that day.[46]
Contrast (X-ray)[edit]
A barium enema in a disposable bag manufactured for that purpose
In a lower gastrointestinal series an enema that may contain barium sulfate powder or a water-soluble contrast agent is used in the radiological imaging of the bowel. Called a barium enema, such enemas are sometimes the only practical way to view the colon in a relatively safe manner.[6]
Failure to expel all of the barium may cause constipation or possible impaction[47] and a patient who has no bowel movement for more than two days or is unable to pass gas rectally should promptly inform a physician and may require an enema or laxative.[48]
Medication administration[edit]
The administration of substances into the bloodstream. This may be done in situations where it is undesirable or impossible to deliver a medication by mouth, such as antiemetics given to reduce nausea (though not many antiemetics are delivered by enema). Additionally, several anti-angiogenic agents, which work better without digestion, can be safely administered via a gentle enema.
The topical administration of medications into the rectum, such as corticosteroids and mesalazine used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Administration by enema avoids having the medication pass through the entire gastrointestinal tract, therefore simplifying the delivery of the medication to the affected area and limiting the amount that is absorbed into the bloodstream.
Rectal corticosteroid enemas are sometimes used to treat mild or moderate ulcerative colitis. They also may be used along with systemic (oral or injection) corticosteroids or other medicines to treat severe disease or mild to moderate disease that has spread too far to be treated effectively by medicine inserted into the rectum alone.
Inhibiting pathological defecation[edit]
- Traveller's diarrhea’s symptoms treated with an enema of sodium butyrate, organic acids, and A-300 silicon dioxide can be successfully decreased with lack of observed side effects.[7]
- Shigellosis treatment benefits from adjunct therapy with butyrate enemas, promoting healing of the rectal mucosa and inflammation, but not helping in clinical recovery from shigellosis. Use of an 80 ml of a sodium butyrate isotonic enema administered every 12 hours has been studied and found effective.[49]
Other[edit]
- There have been a few cases in remote or rural settings, where rectal fluids have been used to rehydrate a person. Benefits include not needing to use sterile fluids.[50]
- Introducing healthy bacterial flora through infusion of stool, known as a fecal microbiota transplant, was first performed in 1958 employing retention enemas. Enemas remained the most common method until 1989, when alternative means of administration were developed.[51]As of 2013, colonoscope implantation has been preferred over fecal enemas because by using the former method, the entire colon and ileum can be inoculated, but enemas reach only to the splenic flexure.[52]
- A patient unable to be fed otherwise can be nourished by an enteral administration of predigested foods, which is known as a nutrient enema. [53] This treatment is ancient, dating back at least to the second century CE when documented by Galen,[54] and commonly used in the Middle Ages,[55] remaining a common technique in 19th century,[56] and as recently as 1941 the U. S.' military manual for hospital diets prescribes their use.[57] Nutrient enemas have been superseded in modern medical care by tube feeding and intravenous feeding.[citation needed]
- Enemas have been used around the time of childbirth however there is no evidence for this practice and it is now discouraged.[58]
Adverse effects[edit]
Improper administration of an enema can cause electrolyte imbalance (with repeated enemas) or ruptures to the bowel or rectal tissues resulting in internal bleeding. However, these occurrences are rare in healthy, sober adults. Internal bleeding or rupture may leave the individual exposed to infections from intestinal bacteria. Blood resulting from tears in the colon may not always be visible, but can be distinguished if the feces are unusually dark or have a red hue. If intestinal rupture is suspected, medical assistance should be obtained immediately.[59]
The enema tube and solution may stimulate the vagus nerve, which may trigger an arrhythmia such as bradycardia.
Enemas should not be used if there is an undiagnosed abdominal pain since the peristalsis of the bowel can cause an inflamed appendix to rupture.
There are arguments both for and against colonic irrigation in people with diverticulitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, severe or internal hemorrhoids or tumors in the rectum or colon, and its usage is not recommended soon after bowel surgery (unless directed by one's health care provider). Regular treatments should be avoided by people with heart disease or renal failure. Colonics are inappropriate for people with bowel, rectal or anal pathologies where the pathology contributes to the risk of bowel perforation.[60]
Recent research has shown that ozone water, which is sometimes used in enemas, can immediately cause microscopic colitis.[61]
A recent case series[62] of 11 patients with five deaths illustrated the danger of phosphate enemas in high-risk patients.
History[edit]
A normal clyster syringe (front) and the nozzle for a syringe designed for self-administration (rear). The latter avoided the need for a second party to attend an embarrassing procedure.
Enema entered the English Language c.1675 from Latin in which, in the 15th century,[3] it was first used in the sense of a rectal injection,[2] from Greek ἔνεμα (énema), “injection”, itself from ἐνίηναι (enienai) 'to send in, inject', from ἐν (en), 'in' + ἱέναι (hienai), 'to send, throw'.[63]
Clyster (/ˈklɪstə(r)/) entered the English Language in the late 14th century via Old French clistre or Latin clyster, from Greek κλυστήρ, 'syringe'. Also spelled glister in the 17th century, rarely cloiste' or clister,[citation needed] it is an archaic word for enema, more particularly for enemas administered using a clyster syringe – that is, a syringe with a rectal nozzle and a plunger rather than a bulb. Clyster syringes were used from the 17th century (or before) to the 19th century, when they were largely replaced by enema bulb syringes, bocks, and bags.
The first mention of the enema in medical literature is in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE). One of the many types of medical specialists was an Iri, the Shepherd of the Anus. Many medications were administered by enemas.[64] There was a Keeper of the Royal Rectum who may have primarily been the pharaoh's enema maker. The god Thoth, according to Egyptian mythology, invented the enema.[65]
The Olmec from their middle preclassic period (10th through 7th centuries BCE) through the Spanish Conquest used trance-inducing substances ceremonially, and these were ingested via, among other routes, enemas administered using jars.
As further described below in religious rituals, the Maya in their late classic age (7th through 10th centuries CE) used enemas for, at least, ritual purposes, Mayan sculpture and ceramics from that period depicting scenes in which, injected by syringes made of gourd and clay, ritual hallucinogenic enemas were taken.[66] In the Xibalban court of the God D, whose worship included ritual cult paraphernal, the Maya illustrated the use of a characteristic enema bulb syringe by female attendants administering clysters ritually.[67][68]
For combating illness and discomfort of the digestive tract, the Mayan also employed enemas, as documented during the colonial period, e.g., in the Florentine Codex.[66]
The indigenous peoples of North America employed tobacco smoke enemas to stimulate respiration, injecting the smoke using a rectal tube.[69][70]
A rubber bag connected with a conical nozzle, at an early period, was in use among the indigenous peoples of South America as an enema syringe,[71] and the rubber enema bag with a connecting tube and ivory tip remained in use by them while in Europe a syringe was still the usual means for conducting an enema.[72]
Pressure enema from an animal bladder (African wooden sculpture, 19th century)
In Babylonia, by 600 BCE, enemas were in use, although it appears that initially they were in use because of a belief that the demon of disease would, by means of an enema, be driven out of the body.[73]
In China, c. 200 CE, Zhang Zhongjing was the first to employ enemas. 'Secure a large pig's bile and mix with a small quantity of vinegar. Insert a bamboo tube three or four inches long into the rectum and inject the mixture' are his directions, according to Wu Lien-teh.[74]
In India, in the fifth century CE, Sushruta enumerates the enema syringe among 121 surgical instruments described. Early Indian physicians' enema apparatus consisted of a tube of bamboo, ivory, or horn attached to the scrotum of a deer, goat, or ox.[73]
Hippocrates (460-370 BCE) frequently mentions enemas, e.g., 'if the previous food which the patient has recently eaten should not have gone down, give an enema if the patient be strong and in the prime of life, but if he be weak, a suppository should be administered, should the bowels be not well moved on their own accord.'[75]
In the first century BCE the Greek physicianAsclepiades of Bithynia wrote 'Treatment consists merely of three elements: drink, food, and the enema'.[76] Also, he contended that indigestion is caused by particles of food that are too big and his prescribed treatment was proper amounts of food and wine followed by an enema which would remove the improper food doing the damage.[77]
In the second century CE the Greek philosopher Celsus recommended an enema of pearl barley in milk or rose oil with butter as a nutrient for those suffering from dysentery and unable to eat[78] and Galen mentions enemas in several contexts.[54]
In medieval times appear the first illustrations of enema equipment in the Western world, a clyster syringe consisting of a tube attached to a pump action bulb made of a pig bladder. In the 15th century simple piston syringe clysters came into use. Beginning in the 17th century enema apparatus was chiefly designed for self-administration at home and many were French as enemas enjoyed wide usage in France.[78]
When clyster syringes were in use in Europe, the patient was placed in an appropriate position (kneeling, with the buttocks raised, or lying on the side); a servant or apothecary would then insert the nozzle into the anus and press the plunger, resulting in the liquid remedy (generally, water, but also some other preparations) being injected into the colon.
Portable enema self-administration apparatus by Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla (18th century; Medical History Museum, University of Zurich)
Because of the embarrassment a woman might feel when showing her buttocks (and possibly her genitals, depending on the position) to a male apothecary, some contraptions were invented that blocked all from the apothecary's view except for the anal area. Another invention was syringes equipped with a special bent nozzle, which enabled self-administration, thereby eliminating the embarrassment.
Clysters were administered for symptoms of constipation and, with more questionable effectiveness, stomach aches and other illnesses. In 1694 François Mauriceau in his early-modern treatise, The Diseases of Women with Child, records that both midwives and man-midwives commonly administered clysters to labouring mothers just prior to their delivery.[79]
In the 17th century, satirists made physicians a favorite target, resembling Molière's caricature whose prescription for anything was 'clyster, bleed, purge,' or 'purge, bleed, clyster.',[80] e.g., in his 1673 play The Imaginary Invalid.[81] Sir Thomas More's eldest daughter had fallen sick of the sweating sickness and could not be awakened by doctors. More prayed for her recovery, and then
where incontinent came into his mind, that a glister should be the only way to help her, which when he had told the physicians, they by-and-by confessed, that if there were any hope of health, that it was the very best help indeed, much marvelling of themselves, that they had not afore remembered it.[82]
19th century satirical cartoon of a monkey rejecting an old style clyster for a new design, filled with marshmallow and opium
In 1753 an enema bag prepared from a pig's or beef's bladder attached to a tube was described by Johann Jacob Woyts as an alternative to a syringe.[83]
In the 18th century Europeans began emulating the indigenous peoples of North America's use of tobacco smoke enemas to resuscitate drowned people.[84] Tobacco resuscitation kits consisting of a pair of bellows and a tube were provided by the Royal Humane Society of London and placed at various points along the Thames.[78] Furthermore, these enemas came to be employed for headaches, respiratory failure, colds, hernias, abdominal cramps, typhoid fever, and cholera outbreaks.[84]
Clysters were a favourite medical treatment in the bourgeoisie and nobility of the Western world up to the 19th century. As medical knowledge was fairly limited at the time, purgative clysters were used for a wide variety of ailments, the foremost of which were stomach aches and constipation.
Molière, in several of his plays, introduces characters of incompetent physicians and apothecaries fond of prescribing this remedy, also discussed by Argan, the hypochondriac patient of Le Malade Imaginaire. More generally, clysters were a theme in the burlesque comedies of that time.
According to Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, clysters were so popular at the court of King Louis XIV of France that the duchess of Burgundy had her servant give her a clyster in front of the King (her modesty being preserved by an adequate posture) before going to the comedy. However, he also mentions the astonishment of the King and Mme de Maintenon that she should take it before them.
In the 19th century many new types of enema administration equipment were devised, including the bulb enema. Later there came to be a device to allow gravity to infuse the solution into the recipient, consisting of a rubber bag or bucket connected to a hose with a nozzle at the other end to insert into the patient's anus, the bag or bucket being held or hung above the patient. These continue to be used, although rubber has been replaced by modern materials and the bags, at least in hospital use, are disposable.[78]
In the late 20th century the microenema was invented, this being a disposable squeeze bottle with contents that cause the body to draw water into the colon, e.g., sodium biphosphate (popular in the United States) or glycerin (popular in Japan).
Society and culture[edit]
Alternative medicine[edit]
Benign[edit]
Colonic irrigation[edit]
The term 'colonic irrigation' is commonly used in gastroenterology to refer to the practice of introducing water through a colostomy or a surgically constructed conduit as a treatment for constipation.[85] The Food and Drug Administration has ruled that colonic irrigation equipment is not approved for sale for the purpose of general well-being[86] and has taken action against many distributors of this equipment, including a Warning Letter.[87]
Colon cleansing[edit]
The same term is also used in alternative medicine where it may involve the use of substances mixed with water in order to detoxify the body. Practitioners believe the accumulation of fecal matter in the large intestine leads to ill health.[88] This resurrects the old medical concept of autointoxication which was orthodox doctrine up to the end of the 19th century but which has now been discredited.[89][90][91]
Kellogg's enemas[edit]
In the late 19th century Dr. John Harvey Kellogg made sure that the bowel of each and every patient was plied with water, from above and below. His favorite device was an enema machine ('just like one I saw in Germany') that could run fifteen gallons of water through a person's bowel in a matter of seconds. Every water enema was followed by a pint of yogurt—half was eaten, the other half was administered by enema 'thus planting the protective germs where they are most needed and may render most effective service.' The yogurt served to replace 'the intestinal flora' of the bowel, creating what Kellogg claimed was a completely clean intestine.[92]
Dangerous[edit]
Bleach enemas[edit]
Chlorine dioxide enemas have been fraudulently marketed as a medical treatment, primarily for autism. This has resulted, for example, in a six-year-old boy needing to have his bowel removed and a colostomy bag fitted,[93][94] complaints to the FDA reporting life-threatening reactions,[95] and even death.[96]
Patently false claims that administering autistic children these enemas results in their expulsion of parasites ('rope worms'), which actually are the intestinal lining and membranes.[97][98] These enemas have also been promoted as a cure for HIV, malaria, hepatitis viruses, the H1N1flu virus, common colds, acne, cancer, Parkinson's, and much more.
Chlorine dioxide is a potent and toxic bleach[99] that is relabeled for 'medicinal' purposes to a variety of brand names including, but not limited, to MMS, Miracle Mineral Supplement, and CD protocol.[100] For oral use, the doses recommended on the labeling can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, severe dehydration, and other life-threatening conditions.[101]
No clinical trials have been performed to test these enemas' claims, which come only from former Scientologist Jim Humble [102] in his 2006 self-published book, The Miracle Mineral Solution of the 21st Century[103] and from anecdotal reports. The name MMS was coined by Humble. Sellers sometimes describe MMS as a water purifier so as to circumvent medical regulations.[104] The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies rejected 'in the strongest terms' reports by promoters of MMS that they had used the product to fight malaria.[105]
Coffee enemas[edit]
Although well documented, the procedure of inserting coffee through the anus to cleanse the rectum and large intestines is considered by most medical authorities to be unproven, rash and potentially dangerous.[106][107]
Coffee enemas can cause numerous side effects, including infections, sepsis (including campylobacter sepsis), severe electrolyte imbalance, colitis, polymicrobial enteric sepsis, proctocolitis, salmonella, brain abscess, and heart failure,[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116] and deaths related to coffee enemas have been documented.[117]
In the Gerson therapy, coffee enemas are administered.[118]
Some proponents of alternative medicine have claimed that coffee enemas have an anti-cancer effect by 'detoxifying' metabolic products of tumors[108] but there is no medical scientific evidence to support this.[107][109][119]
Recreational usage[edit]
An aluminium enema nozzle. Specialty nozzles, in a variety of sizes, styles, and materials, are common for non-medical usage.
An inflatable nozzle which, after insertion, is inflated to a size than can not be expelled, allowing administration of such an enema that could not otherwise be retained, either for pleasure or as part of BDSM activities. Shown here in an optional harness.
Pleasure[edit]
Enjoyment of enemas is known as klismaphilia, which medically is classified as a paraphilia.[120][121] A person with klismaphilia is a klismaphile.
Klismaphiles can gain satisfaction of enemas through fantasies, by actually receiving or giving one, or through the process of eliminating steps to being administered one (e.g., under the pretence of being constipated).[122] An enema can be an auxiliary to, or even a substitute for, genital sexual activity.[123][122]
That some women use enemas while masturbating was documented by Kinsey, A. in 'Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.' He stated, 'There still [are] other masturbatory techniques which were regularly or occasionally employed by some 11 percent of the females in the sample .. enemas, and other anal insertions, .. were employed.'[124]
Enemas are sometimes used in sadomasochistic activities[125][126] for erotic humiliation[127] or for physical discomfort.[128]
An enema can be employed prior to anal sexual activities such as anal sex, anilingus, and pegging to enhance sensation or remove feces, possibly reducing risk of infection.[129]
Intoxication[edit]
Noting that deaths have been reported from alcohol poisoning via enemas,[130] an alcohol enema can be used to very quickly instill alcohol into the bloodstream, absorbed through the membranes of the colon. However, great care must be taken as to the amount of alcohol used. Only a small amount is needed as the intestine absorbs the alcohol far more quickly than the stomach.
Preceding an enema for administration of drugs or alcohol, a cleansing enema may first be used for cleaning the colon to help increase the rate of absorption.[131]
Religious rituals[edit]
All across Mesoamerica ritual enemas were employed to consume psychoactive substances, e.g., balché, alcohol, tobacco, peyote, and other hallucinogenic drugs and entheogens, most notably by the Maya, thus attaining more intense trance states more quickly, and Mayan classic-period sculpture and ceramics depict hallucinogenic enemas used in rituals.[66] Some tribes continue the practice in the present day.[132]
With historical roots in the Indian subcontinent, enemas in Ayurveda, called Basti or Vasti, form part of Panchakarma procedure in which herbal medicines are introduced rectally.[133]
Punitive usage[edit]
Enemas have also been forcibly applied as a means of punishment.
In the vastly influential Argentine text Facundo, or Civilization and Barbarism, for example, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento describes the use of pepper and turpentine enemas by police forces as a way of discouraging political dissent in post-independence Argentina.[134] Turpentine enemas are very harsh purgatives.[135]
In the Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp, the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture documented instances of enemas being used by the Central Intelligence Agency in order to ensure 'total control' over detainees.[136] Enemas, officials said, are uncomfortable and degrading,[137] The CIA forced nutrient enema on detainees who attempted hunger strikes, documenting “With head lower than torso … sloshing up the large intestines … [what] I infer is that you get a tube up as you can … We used the largest Ewal [sic] tube we had” wrote an officer,[138] and 'violent enemas' is how a detainee described what he received.[139]
Sel 321 Invalid Setting Number
In arts and literature[edit]
Written literature[edit]
In Shakespeare's play Othello (Act II, Scene I) Iago says, 'Yet again your fingers to your lips? would they were clyster-pipes for your sake!'[140]
In George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the narrator notes, 'Sexual intercourse was to be looked on as a slightly disgusting minor operation, like having an enema.'[141]
In Grace Metalious's novel Peyton Place, the town doctor tells of “a young boy with the worst case of dehydration I ever saw. It came from getting too many enemas that he didn’t need. Sex, with a capital S-E-X.”.[142]. As a teenager, the boy enjoys receiving enemas from his mother.[143]
In Flora Rheta Schreiber's book Sybil, Sybil's psychiatrist asks her “What’s Mama been doing to you, dear? . . . I know she gave you the enemas.'[144]
In Anne Roiphe's novel Torch Song, Marjorie, not knowing how to otherwise address her dysphonia, reminisces on unhappy memories, one of which is her German nurse inflicting on her painful enemas.[145]
In Anne Sexton's poem 'Cripples And Other Stories', is the couplet 'Oh the enemas of childhood, reeking of outhouses and shame!'[146]
Film[edit]
In The Right Stuff, during flight training astronaut Alan Shepard retains a barium enema,[147] given two floors away from a toilet, embarrassingly riding a public elevator wearing a hospital gown and holding the inserted enema bag.[148][149]
In Sybil, Sybil's psychiatrist, while having taken her for a picnic in the country, heard her re-experience, among other things, her mother having bound her with a broom handle on the kitchen table and suspended her by her feet from the hanging light, in preparation for forcing her to take an enema.[150]
Song[edit]
The lyrics of Frank Zappa's song The Illinois Enema Bandit are concerned with Michael H. Kenyon's sexual assaults which included administrating involuntary enemas[151]
Monument[edit]
A 365-kilogram (805-pound) brass statue of a syringe enema bulb held aloft by three cherubs stands in front of the 'Mashuk' spa in the settlement of Zheleznovodsk in Russia. Inspired by the 15th century Renaissance painter Botticelli, it was created by a local artist who commented that 'Aa enema is an unpleasant procedure as many of us may know. But when cherubs do it, it's all right.' When unveiled on 19 June 2008, posted on one of the spa's wall was a banner declaring 'Let's beat constipation and sloppiness with enemas.' The spa lying in the Caucasus Mountains region, known for dozens of spas that routinely treat digestive and other complaints with enemas of mineral spring water, the director commented 'An enema is almost a symbol of our region.' [152][153] It is the only known monument to the enema.[154]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ abCullingworth, A Manual of Nursing, Medical and Surgical:155
- ^ ab'enema noun'. Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
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Notes
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- Friedenwald, Julius; Morrison, Samuel (February 1940). 'The History of the Enema with Some Notes on Related Procedures (Part II)'. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press. 8 (2): 239–276. JSTOR44442727.
- Magner, Lois (1992). A History of Medicine. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN978-0-8247-8673-1.
- Parsons, Lee Allen; Carlson, John B. (1988). The Face of Ancient America: The Wally and Brenda Zollman Collection of Precolumbian Art. Indianapolis, Indiana, United States: Indianapolis Museum of Art. ISBN978-0-936260-24-2.
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Sel 321 Invalid Setting Page
External links[edit]
Sel 321 Invalid Setting Meaning
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Enemas. |
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